Socioecosystems, part II

The following table, developed by Kowarik (2011), features the main urban drivers of plant and animal adaptations to city environments. The impacts of habitat fragmentation, pollutants, and disturbance in cities are well documented. But the emergence of research on novel habitats paint the possibilities of new urban ecosystems in the making. Life continues to adapt to the harshest of environmental conditions.

Socioecosystems (Grimm)

"There is an increasing body of evidence that urban land uses effect profound changes in all environmental components and that humans are the main drivers of change (Sukopp et al., 1979; Gilbert, 1989; Pickett et al., 2001; Alberti et al., 2003), thus leading to the idea of addressing cities as “socioecosystems” (Grimm et al., 2008)"

--Ingo Kowarik, "Novel urban ecosystems, biodiversity, and conservation", Environmental Pollution 159 (2011) 1974-1983

This interesting chart below by Kowarik (2011) identifies the urban drivers of biodiversity through landscape practices--including income levels of a neighborhood, available ornamental types, management, and propagule dispersal. How does your neighborhood fare?

Urban ecology and sustainability: The state-of-the-science and future directions

“Some components of cities or even some cities as a whole may be viewed as “novel ecosystems” in which the value of biodiversity should not be judged by its origins (Davis et al., 2011; Standish et al., 2013). Instead, we should “organize priorities around whether species are producing benefits or harm to biodiversity, human health, ecological services and economies” (Davis et al., 2011), and those alien (but not invasive) species that provide abundant ecosystem services should be incorporated into urban planning and management (Clark and Nicholas, 2013; Davis et al., 2011; Standish et al., 2013).” 

Wu, Jianguo. (2014). Urban ecology and sustainability: The state-of-the-science and future directions. Landscape and Urban Planning. 125. . 10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.01.018. 

Urban Nature Show on WTTW

Check out Marcus Kronforst's online video show that addresses urban ecology topics in 3 cities--Chicago, San Francisco, and New York. It's available here: http://interactive.wttw.com/urbannature#!/

Marcus Kronforst, PhD, is the Neubauer Family Assistant Professor in the Department of Ecology & Evolution at the University of Chicago. He is a prominent researcher in the field of evolutionary biology, where his work focuses on wing pattern mimicry in butterflies. Kronforst has published his scientific research in an array of highly influential journals, including Nature, Science, Nature Communications, Proceedings of the National Academies of Sciences USA, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Genetics, and Genome Biology, among others. He has been named a Pew Biomedical Research Scholar and he is the recent recipient of both an NSF CAREER award and an NSF Dimensions of Biodiversity grant, along with a 2016 Distinguished Faculty Award from the University of Chicago. Kronforst earned his Ph.D. in Ecology, Evolution, and Behavior from the University of Texas at Austin in 2004. He received his B.S. in Biology from the University of Miami in 1998. Prior to joining the University of Chicago, he held a five-year Bauer Fellowship at Harvard University’s FAS Center for Systems Biology. Kronforst joined the University of Chicago faculty in 2012.

A Tale of Adaptive Landscape Management

                                  

Like most designed landscapes, the entry garden for the Landscape Architecture Facility at Mississippi State University began with a plan. Specifically, this one:

I was asked to develop a planting plan in the summer of 2005, and I decided to focus on low maintenance plants to reflect our department focus on sustainable landscapes. Students helped to install plants in 2006, which looked like this:

Most of the plants did well and adapted to the sticky clay soils and persistent summer droughts. Drip irrigation was provided for the first year and then removed. Organic mulch was added periodically and the mineral soils developed a nice thick organic layer. Other than for establishment, no supplemental watering, fertilizing, or pesticides have been used. The perennials blossomed and established a quick cover within a year's time:

The trees and woody shrubs took time to grow and changes were already happening in the herbaceous layer. Some plants died out from drought or accidental weeding while others were planted to replace them. Volunteer herbaceous plants came in from local sources-- including native strawberries, evening primrose, and asters. Volunteers can spread rapidly and take advantage of late winter seasons where there is little competition. The evening primrose gave quite a display such as this:

Student workers in the garden were trained to use adaptive landscape management which they learned under one of my co-workers, Dr. Tim Schauwecker. Adaptive management, as defined by Holling, is decision-making as changes occur via system monitoring. An example of this in the landscape consists of allowing plant volunteers to come into the garden that are complementary to the already existing plants. Student workers in the LA garden actively pulled out any exotic invasive species such as Johnson grass or privet, while allowing others to exist. Some plants that took over aggressively, such as the evening primrose, and were pulled occasionally to keep them in check.

The garden today, 12 years later after install and shown above, has settled into a comfortable, more stable, plant community. Stable in the sense that vegetative changes will and are allowed to happen but there are no large wholesale changes to the landscape. The student managers allow plants to come in if they fit into the garden niche and offer a role through flowering or by providing other benefits. Plants that grow too large, or competitive, or are not suited-- are pulled out. Gardens are partnerships between the landscape and the people that care for them. By understanding the vegetative trajectories, or seres of a garden; and by allowing complementary plants to enter into that system from birds or wind; the garden co-evolves into a community of plants that exceeds the vision of the original designers or managers. Land managers--gardeners-- are really vegetative artists and allow the colors of plants to wash into the painting/plantings. We need to recognize that gardens are temporal and that all living things change. By listening to the land and allowing living things (plants and animals) to breathe and exist within the garden structure, the landscape renews itself. Gardens should, and need to be-- dynamic, instead of a static system.

How do you sample your yard to measure for biodiversity?

You can take samples in your yard just like urban researchers do, such as those in the Ecological Homogenization of Urban America project, hosted by a team of intercollegiate scientists. Funded by the U.S. National Science Foundation, the project personnel are trying to understand if cities that have similar road patterns, housing areas, and similar vegetation types create a distinct urban ecology that occurs across a continent (visit the project website at http://ecologicalhomogenization.com/). Scientists from leading universities in six U.S. cities: Baltimore, Boston, Los Angeles, Miami, Minneapolis/St. Paul, and Phoenix; are participating in understanding their local environment. They invite the public from that area to let them come to their residence and sample their yard. To do this, they:

• Identify and map all of the plants that are growing there.
• Take soil samples
• Take measurements of atmospheric conditions such as air temperature, humidity and soil moisture content.

After a few months of sampling, they send homeowners a report of their ecological index score. If you live in those cities, contact the research team to sample for you. If you don't, you can DIY by taking your own samples to see what you have. We look forward to their results.

Urban Flora resources by country

The following literature sources were first published by Steve Clements from the Brooklyn Botanic Gardens in the December 2002 online issue of Urban Habitats journal:

"Following is a list of some urban floras from around the world, in alphabetical order by city. Apparently no floras are available for 27 of the 50 most populated cities in the world, as listed by One World - Nations Online (2002) (http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/bigcities.htm):

Beijing (China)

He, S.Y. (1992). Beijing zhi wu zhi [Flora of Beijing] (2nd ed., 2 vols.). Beijing: Beijing chu ban she: Xin hua shu dian Beijing fa xing suo fa xing.

Belfast (Northern Ireland)

Beesley, S. & Wilde, J. (1997). Urban flora of Belfast. Belfast: Institute of Irish Studies, University of Belfast.

Berlin (Germany)

Böcker, R., Auhagen, A., Brockmann, H., Kowarik, I., Scholz, H., Sukopp, H. & Zimmermann, F. (1991). Liste der wildwachsenden Farn- und Blütenpflanzen von Berlin (West) [List of the wild-growing ferns and flowering plants of (west) Berlin]. In A. Auhagen, R. Platen & H. Sukopp (Eds.), Rote Listen der gefährdeten Pflanzen und Tiere in Berlin 1990 [Red lists of endangered plants and animals in Berlin 1990]. Landschaftsentwicklung und Umweltforschung, 6, 57-88.

Buenos Aires (Argentina)

Guaglianone, R. (1980). Algunas hierbas espontáneas en los espacios verdes de la ciudad de Buenos Aires [Some spontaneous weeds in the green spaces of the city of Buenos Aires ]. Buenos Aires: Municipalidad de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Secretaría de Educación.

Calcutta (India)

Manilal, K.S. & Sivarajan V.V. (1982). Flora of Calicut: the flowering plants of the greater Calicut area consisting of the western sectors of Calicut and Malappuram districts. Dehra Dun: Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh.

Chicago (United States)

Swink, F. & Wilhelm, G. (1994). Plants of the Chicago region: an annotated checklist of the vascular flora of the Chicago region, with keys, notes on local distribution, ecology, and taxonomy, a system for the qualitative evaluation of plant communities, a natural division map, and a description of natural plant communities. Indianapolis: Indiana Academy of Science.

Delhi (India)

Maheshwari, J.K. (1963). The flora of Delhi. New Delhi: Council of Scientific & Industrial Research.

Dublin (Ireland)

Doogue, D., Nash, D., Parnell, J., Reynolds, S. & Wyse-Jackson, P.S. (Eds.). (1998). Flora of county Dublin. Dublin: Dublin Naturalists Field Club.

Frankfurt (Germany)

Bönsel, D., Malten, A., Wagner, S. & Zizka, G. (2001). Flora, fauna und biotoptypen von haupt- und güterbahnhof in Frankfurt am Main [Flora, fauna and biotypes of the main and freight railroad yards in Frankfurt am Main] (Kleine Senckenberg-Reihe 38). Frankfurt am Main: Senckenberg Naturforschende Gesellschaft.

Glasgow (Scotland)

Dickson, J.H. (2001). The changing flora of Glasgow: Urban and rural through the centuries. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Guangzhou (China)

Chun, W.Y. (1956). Flora Gwangchownica [Flora of Guangzhou (Canton)]. Guangzhou.

Hou, K. & Chen, H. (1956). Guangzhou zhi wu zhi [Flora of Canton]. Zhongguo ke xue yuan: Hua nan zhi wu yan jiu suo. Beijing: Ke xue chu ban she.

Helsinki (Finland)

Kurtto, A. & Helynranta, L. (1998). Helsingin kasvit. Kukkivilta kiviltä metsän syliin [Flora of Helsinki. From flowering stones to forest floor]. Helsinki: City of Helsinki Environment Centre and Helsinki University Press.

Hong Kong (China)

Hodgkiss, I.J., Thrower, S.L. &. Man, S.H. (1981). An introduction to the ecology of Hong Kong (2 vols.). Hong Kong: Federal Publications Ltd.

Thrower, S.L. (1971). Plants of Hong Kong. Hsiang-kang chih wu [Parallel English and Chinese text]. London: Longman.

Jakarta (Indonesia)

Backer, C.A. (1907). Flora van Batavia. Deel 1, Dicotyledones dialypetalae (Thalamiflorae en Disciflorae) [Flora of Batavia (Jakarta). Part 1, separate petal Dicotyledons (Thalamiflorae and Disciflorae)]. Jakarta: G. Kolff & Co. Mededeelingen Uitgaande van het Departement van Landbouw 4: 1-405.

Miquel, F.A.G. (1837). Disquisitio geographico-botanica de plantarum regni Batavi distributione [Discourse on the botanical geography of the plant kingdom distributed in Batavia (Jakarta)]. Leiden: P.H. van den Heuvell.

London (England)

Burton, R.M. (1983). Flora of the London area. London: London Natural History Society.

Los Angeles (United States)

Abrams, L. (1917). Flora of Los Angeles and vicinity. Stanford, CA : Stanford University.

Madras (India)

Barnes, E. (1938). Supplement to the Flowering plants of Madras City and its immediate neighbourhood. Madras: Superintendent, Government Press.

Mayuranathan, P.V. (1929). The flowering plants of Madras City and its immediate neighbourhood. Madras: Superintendent, Government Press.

Madrid (Spain)

López González, G.A. & López Jiménez, N. (1991-). Flora de Madrid [Flora of Madrid]. Real Jardín Botánico de Madrid: http://www.rjb.csic.es/Biodiversidad/intro.html.

Cutanda, V. (1861). Flora compendiada de Madrid y su provincia, ó, descripcion sucinta de las plantas vasculares que espontáneamente crecen en este territorio [A summary flora of Madrid and its province, or, a succinct description of the vascular plants that spontaneously grow in this territory]. Madrid: Imprenta Nacional.

Melbourne (Australia)

Jones, D. & Jones, B. (1999). Native plants of Melbourne and adjoining areas: a field guide. Hawthorn, Victoria: Bloomings Books.

Gray, M. & Knight, J. (Eds.). (1993). Flora of Melbourne: A guide to the indigenous plants of the greater Melbourne area (3rd ed.). Society for Growing Australian Plants Maroondah, Inc. South Melbourne, Victoria: Hyland House.

Mexico City (Mexico)

Rapoport, E., Díaz-Betancourt, M.E. & López-Moreno, I.R. (1983). Aspectos de la ecología urbana en la ciudad de México : flora de las calles y baldíos [Aspects of the urban ecology in the city of Mexico: flora of the streets and wastelands]. México: Editorial Limusa.

Moscow (Russia)

Poliakova, G.A. (1992). Flora i rastitelnost starykh parkov Podmoskovía [Flora and vegetation of the old parks around Moscow]. Moscow: Nauka.

Mumbai (India)

Graham, J. (1839). A catalogue of the plants growing in Bombay and its vicinity; spontaneous, cultivated or introduced, as far as they have been ascertained . Bombay: Government Press.

New York (United States)

Moore, G., Stewart, A, Clemants, S., Glenn, S. Ma, J. (1990-). New York Metropolitan Flora Project. Brooklyn Botanic Garden: http://www.bbg.org/sci/nymf.

Plzen (Czech Republic)

Pyšek A. & Pyšek P. (1988). Ruderálni flóra Plzne [Ruderal flora of the city of Plzen]. Sbornik Západoces Muzea v Plzeni. Príroda, 68,1-34.

Rome (Italy)

Anzalone, B. (1996). Prodromo della flora romana. Parte Seconda: Angiospermae, Monocotyledones [Preliminary study of the Roman flora. Part II: Angiosperms (Monocotyledons)]. Annali di Botanica (Roma), 54.

Celesti-Grapow, L. (1995). Atlante della Flora di Roma [Atlas of the flora of Rome]. Rome: Argos Edizione.

Anzalone, B. (1994). Prodromo della flora romana. Parte Prima: Pteridophyta, Gymnospermae, Angiospermae, Dicotyledones [Preliminary study of the flora of Rome. Part I: Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms, Angiosperms (Dicotyledons)]. Annali di Botanica (Roma), 52, suppl. II.

St. Petersburg (Russia)

Shishkin, B.K. (Ed.). (1955). Flora Leningradskoi oblasti [Flora of the Leningrad oblast]. Leningrad: Izd-vo Leningradskogo universiteta.

Santiago (Chile)

Navas Bustamante, L.E. (1973-79). Flora de la cuenca de Santiago de Chile [Flora of the Santiago de Chile basin]. Santiago: Ediciones de la Universidad de Chile.

Shanghai (China)

Hsu, P.S. (1999). Shanghai shi wu zhi [The plants of Shanghai] (2 vols.). Shanghai: Shanghai ji shu wen xian chu ban she.

Borrell, O.W. (1996). Flora of the Shanghai area. Victoria, Melbourne, Victoria: William Borrell.

Singapore (Singapore)

Keng, H. (1990). The concise flora of Singapore. Kent Ridge, Singapore: Singapore University Press.

Sousse (Tunisia)

Brandes, D. (2001). Urban flora of Sousse (Tunisia). Botanisches Institut und Botanischer Garten der TU Braunschweig. http://opus.tu-bs.de/opus/volltexte/2001/189/pdf/Sousse.pdf.

Sydney (Australia)

Carolin, R.C., Tindale, M.D. & Beadle, N.C.W. (1994). Flora of the Sydney Region. (4th ed.). Chatswood, NSW: Reed.

Warsaw (Poland)

Sudnik-Wojcikowska, B. (1987). Flora miasta Warszawy i jej przemiany w ci∏agu XIX i XX wieku [The urban flora of Warsaw and its transformation in the 19th and 20th centuries]. Warsaw: Wydawnictwa Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego."